Body dysmorphic disorder vs body dissatisfaction: the essential distinction
Body dissatisfaction is a psychological evaluation: a person feels unhappy with some aspect of their body or appearance. Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is a diagnosable mental disorder in which one or more perceived defects in physical appearance—unnoticeable or slight to other people—become the focus of persistent preoccupation, repetitive appearance-related behaviors or mental acts, and clinically significant distress or impairment. A person can have pronounced body dissatisfaction without BDD, while someone with BDD may organize much of daily life around a highly specific perceived flaw rather than reporting generalized dissatisfaction with the whole body. The critical distinction lies in the pattern and consequences of preoccupation, the function of checking and avoidance, and the full clinical criteria, not simply how negatively someone rates their looks. Rück et al., 2024; NICE, CG31.
Everyday language often uses “body dysmorphia” to describe ordinary insecurity, self-consciousness, or dissatisfaction. In clinical practice, body dysmorphic disorder has a specific meaning. Neither a passing dislike of one's photograph nor a distressing day of appearance comparisons establishes it. Persistent appearance concerns deserve attention on their own terms, including when diagnostic criteria for BDD are not met.
The comparison at a glance
The object of concern
Body dissatisfaction can involve weight, shape, skin, hair, aging, perceived attractiveness, physical ability, or overall appearance. The concern might be broad, situational, socially triggered, or tied to a particular feature. BDD involves an intrusive preoccupation with perceived appearance defects that are absent or appear slight to others. The focus can shift among features over time and may include skin, facial proportions, hair, teeth, perceived asymmetry, or muscularity. The anatomical location alone never establishes the diagnosis. Rück et al., 2024.
The experience of attention
A dissatisfied person may think about a feature often, particularly in a changing room, on social media, after teasing, or before an event. In BDD the concern can seize attention repeatedly throughout the day, feel difficult to disengage from, and become the organizing problem behind decisions, routines, and social participation. Time spent thinking about appearance is clinically informative, but there is no diagnostic rule that a particular number of minutes automatically proves BDD. NICE identifies preoccupation exceeding an hour per day as a useful prompt for further assessment, alongside specific concerns and functional effects. NICE, CG31.
Behaviors and mental rituals
Dissatisfaction can lead to ordinary grooming, self-conscious avoidance, or temporary comparison. BDD requires that at some point in the course of the disorder the person performs repetitive behaviors or mental acts in response to appearance concerns, such as mirror checking, excessive grooming, skin picking, reassurance seeking, or comparing appearance with others. A person might also conceal a feature, use photographs as repeated checks, inspect lighting, or avoid mirrors after repeated distress. The clinician considers both visible rituals and covert mental comparison; avoidance itself is relevant to impairment but does not independently satisfy the repetitive-behavior criterion. International OCD Foundation: Clinical Assessment of BDD.
Distress and impairment
Dissatisfaction ranges from mild frustration to serious distress and can require support without forming a particular disorder. BDD meets the clinical threshold when appearance preoccupation causes significant distress or limits important parts of life. A person may abandon friendships, miss classes, stop dating, repeatedly arrive late, avoid video calls, or be unable to concentrate at work. Functional impact is evaluated in the context of the person's life, not by an appearance rating or an outsider's impression. International OCD Foundation: Clinical Assessment of BDD.
What body dissatisfaction means in psychological science
Body image is multidimensional: researchers distinguish perception of bodily characteristics, thoughts and evaluations, emotional responses, and behavior directed toward the body. Body dissatisfaction is an unfavorable appraisal of one's body or specific appearance characteristics. It is an important research construct and may also be a symptom or associated feature of several clinical presentations. It is not a standalone diagnosis in the DSM-5-TR or ICD-11. Dissatisfaction is shaped by personal experience, appearance comparisons, cultural expectations, stigma, and significant life changes. Its intensity and consequences differ substantially across individuals. Ooi et al., 2025.
Researchers often measure dissatisfaction through self-report questionnaires concerning perceived shape, weight, appearance, or discrepancy between actual and preferred appearance. Those measures provide information about degree and domain of dissatisfaction; they do not determine whether BDD is present. A person may dislike their appearance intensely yet have relatively flexible attention, little ritualized checking, and continued functioning. Conversely, someone may describe only one “small” concern while living with profound BDD-related preoccupation.
Dissatisfaction may be episodic or sustained. It can increase after appearance-based bullying, exposure to narrow beauty ideals, medical treatment that changes appearance, developmental transitions, or social exclusion. It can also coexist with body appreciation and respect for bodily function. Psychological distress remains meaningful even when a person has no clinical disorder. The appropriate response depends on what is causing suffering, how extensive it is, and whether a specific syndrome is present.
What constitutes body dysmorphic disorder
BDD is classified among obsessive-compulsive and related disorders. Diagnostic criteria in DSM-5-TR describe preoccupation with one or more perceived defects in appearance that are not observable or appear slight to other people; repetitive behaviors or mental acts performed in response to those concerns at some point during the disorder; clinically significant distress or impairment; and concerns not better explained by preoccupation with body fat or weight in a person whose symptoms meet diagnostic criteria for an eating disorder. Clinical evaluation also assesses insight, co-occurring disorders, and medical or contextual explanations. ICD-11 recognizes BDD within the obsessive-compulsive and related disorders grouping, with closely related defining features. Rück et al., 2024; Krebs et al., 2024.
The “not observable or slight” criterion concerns the relationship between the perceived defect and other people's observations. It is not a license to dismiss the person's suffering. Individuals with visible differences, scars, disabilities, or dermatologic conditions may experience substantial appearance-related distress and discrimination; a clinician evaluates those experiences without automatically assigning BDD. A real feature and a co-occurring BDD preoccupation can sometimes require nuanced assessment. The diagnosis rests on the full syndrome and its differential, not an external judgment that someone ought to feel attractive.
Insight, conviction, and the word “distorted”
People with BDD vary in insight. Some recognize that their appraisal may be exaggerated; others strongly believe the perceived defect is exactly as serious as it feels. DSM-5-TR describes insight specifiers, including good or fair insight, poor insight, and absent insight or delusional beliefs. Poor insight does not exclude BDD or automatically convert the disorder into a primary psychotic diagnosis. Specialist assessment examines the content of beliefs, the broader clinical presentation, and possible comorbidity. Rück et al., 2024.
“Distorted body image” is an imprecise everyday expression. Perceptual estimation, selective visual attention, negative evaluation, and conviction about flaws are distinguishable research questions. A person can see the dimensions of a feature accurately and still judge it intolerable. Studies suggesting atypical visual processing in BDD are scientifically interesting, but neuroimaging results remain insufficient for a clinical biomarker or individual diagnosis. Rück et al., 2024.
The clinical significance of repetition
The same action can have different meanings. Checking whether makeup looks even before leaving for work can be an ordinary routine. Rechecking dozens of times because a perceived defect seems unbearable may form part of BDD. Asking a friend for an opinion once is ordinary communication; repeated reassurance seeking that briefly reduces anxiety yet quickly renews doubts can maintain an appearance-related preoccupation. High grooming frequency by itself is neither sufficient nor necessary to diagnose BDD. The clinical question is what the action is trying to resolve, how voluntary and flexible it feels, and what happens when it cannot be completed.
How dissatisfaction and BDD can overlap
Both experiences can involve shame, comparison, self-criticism, social withdrawal, avoidance of photographs, and distress after comments about appearance. Dissatisfaction sometimes co-occurs with depression, anxiety, or disordered eating, while BDD may be accompanied by these concerns and by substantial impairment. Overlap in observable behavior should encourage careful evaluation rather than collapse the categories.
A useful way to understand the difference is to examine a sequence. A person notices a feature; attention repeatedly returns to it; the person predicts negative social judgment or catastrophe; they check, conceal, compare, or seek reassurance; relief follows briefly; and renewed doubt prompts another round. The repeated loop can dominate daily life in BDD. By contrast, dissatisfaction may remain an unpleasant evaluation without a similarly entrenched preoccupation-and-ritual cycle. Neither pattern can be diagnosed from a single anecdote.
Three illustrative situations
One person dislikes the shape of their nose, feels disappointed in photographs, and occasionally talks about cosmetic changes, yet maintains friendships, concentration, and ordinary activities. That description establishes dissatisfaction, with severity requiring further context. It does not establish BDD.
Another person spends several hours a day thinking that a slight facial asymmetry makes them unacceptable, repeatedly compares photographs, avoids bright lighting, misses work, and seeks reassurance that never lasts. This pattern merits a specialized BDD assessment because it resembles the required constellation of preoccupation, repetitive response, and impairment.
A third person is distressed about weight, persistently restricts intake, fears weight gain, and bases self-worth heavily on shape and weight. That presentation requires a thorough eating-disorder assessment; labeling the concern as BDD from appearance distress alone could obscure its more appropriate clinical explanation. Cases can also involve more than one disorder, and clinicians assess each syndrome separately.
Psychological mechanisms: what may maintain each experience
Appearance comparison and social learning
Appearance evaluation is influenced by comparisons with peers, idealized images, and culturally valued features. Longitudinal research links appearance comparison and body dissatisfaction in both directions, while the magnitude and direction of associations depend on study design and moderators. The 2025 systematic review and meta-analysis by Ooi and colleagues supports a temporal relationship without establishing that every individual or platform exposure has the same effect. Ooi et al., 2025.
The general mechanisms are relevant to BDD too, but it would be an error to infer a particular disorder from social media exposure. BDD is a clinical syndrome with multiple possible developmental and maintaining contributors. Current evidence supports interacting psychological and contextual factors; specific causal pathways, including brain-based accounts, remain under investigation. Rück et al., 2024.
Selective attention and appearance-centered interpretation
A person intensely concerned about appearance may search for confirming details, interpret ambiguous facial expressions as criticism, or discount neutral and reassuring information. In BDD this can become a self-reinforcing attentional and interpretive system, especially when checking produces short-lived certainty. The cognitive-behavioral treatment model addresses these cycles directly. Models help organize evidence and treatment targets; they do not imply that every proposed cognitive mechanism has been causally isolated in experiments.
Checking, avoidance, and immediate relief
Compulsive checking and avoidance can reduce distress momentarily while preserving the belief that the perceived flaw must be continuously monitored or hidden. The person loses opportunities to discover that social participation and daily life can continue without ritualized appearance management. BDD-focused cognitive behavioral therapy therefore often includes response prevention and graduated exposure to avoided situations, alongside cognitive work and attention training. Castle et al., 2021.
For dissatisfaction without BDD, intervention targets may be broader: reducing harsh evaluations, strengthening self-compassion, shifting attention toward body functionality, addressing weight stigma, or changing harmful appearance-comparison habits. A therapist selects strategies based on an assessment, including the possibility of eating pathology, trauma, depression, or actual harassment.
Development, adolescence, and social context
BDD often begins during adolescence and may be hidden because of shame, fear of ridicule, or the belief that an appearance procedure is the only solution. A practitioner review emphasizes that recognition in young people requires developmentally adapted questions, attention to school and social impairment, family accommodation of rituals, and assessment of risk. Research estimates vary with population and measurement method; screening prevalence should never be equated with interview-confirmed diagnosis. Krebs et al., 2024.
Puberty, changing bodies, social comparison, appearance-based teasing, racism, ableism, weight stigma, and gender norms can affect how people describe and experience body dissatisfaction. Such exposures also shape where and whether a person seeks help. Neither gender identity, body weight, racial characteristics, disability, aging, nor the presence of a visible feature is evidence of psychiatric disorder. An equitable assessment examines actual social experiences, medical context, the person's own goals, and sources of suffering.
Researchers should assess the validity and interpretation of questionnaires across genders, cultures, racial and ethnic groups, and age ranges. Measures validated predominantly in one population may perform differently in another. Mixed evidence about differences between demographic groups calls for careful sampling and avoidance of stereotyped assumptions.
How clinicians distinguish the two
Step 1: Clarify the appearance concern
A clinician asks which features seem problematic, when concerns began, whether they shift, how real or severe they feel, what interpretations accompany them, and how others perceive those features. The interview invites the person to describe their experience without shaming them or debating their attractiveness. Clinicians also ask about social mistreatment and relevant dermatologic, medical, or developmental circumstances.
Step 2: Map preoccupation and behavioral responses
Assessment explores how long the person thinks about appearance on a typical day, whether thoughts are intrusive, which situations trigger them, and whether checking, grooming, comparisons, camouflage, reassurance seeking, skin picking, or mental review recur in response. It is important to ask about avoidance and mental rituals because a person may conceal symptoms from family and clinicians. NICE's five screening-oriented questions ask about the extent of appearance worry, the specific issue, time spent preoccupied, impact on life, and interference with social or work functioning. NICE, CG31.
Step 3: Evaluate impairment and distress
The assessment considers sleep, work, school, relationships, sexual well-being, finances, social participation, and attempts to obtain cosmetic care. Clinically significant distress may exist even when someone works hard to conceal impairment. Some highly distressed people still attend school or work, at great personal cost; absence of obvious withdrawal does not automatically rule out a disorder.
Step 4: Assess differential diagnoses and risk
Clinicians evaluate whether eating-disorder symptoms better explain weight or fat preoccupation, whether social anxiety is organized around broadly negative evaluation rather than a perceived physical defect, and whether intrusive beliefs and rituals are better understood within OCD or other conditions. They also assess depression, trauma, psychotic symptoms when relevant, substance-related effects, body-focused repetitive behaviors, and physical health concerns. Co-occurring conditions are considered when separate syndromes meet criteria. Assessment includes self-harm and suicidal thoughts when clinically indicated, especially in suspected BDD. Rück et al., 2024; NICE, CG31.
Can a questionnaire tell whether someone has BDD?
Questionnaires can indicate that further evaluation is warranted. The Body Dysmorphic Disorder Questionnaire (BDDQ) is a screening instrument designed to detect possible BDD symptoms in certain settings; its performance depends on population and the way it is administered. The Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale Modified for Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD-YBOCS) is a clinician-rated scale designed to assess BDD symptom severity and treatment change, not to serve as a standalone diagnostic verdict. Measures of body dissatisfaction assess the valence and strength of evaluations and are not interchangeable with BDD diagnostic interviews. Phillips et al., 1997; International OCD Foundation.
An online “body dysmorphia test” cannot resolve questions about medical context, insight, differential diagnosis, or safety. A low screening score may also miss concealed symptoms. Results are most useful as conversation starters within competent clinical assessment.
Differences from other clinical conditions
BDD and eating disorders
BDD and eating disorders can share mirror checking, appearance comparison, body shame, dietary changes, and attempts to alter the body. In eating disorders, weight, fat, shape, eating-related rules, and related behaviors may organize the psychopathology. DSM-5-TR directs clinicians not to diagnose BDD when weight or fat concerns are better explained by an eating disorder. Someone may meet criteria for both if independently significant concerns are present, but neither condition should be inferred from dissatisfaction alone. Krebs et al., 2024.
BDD and social anxiety disorder
Both can involve fear of being judged and avoidance of social situations. BDD centers on an allegedly flawed physical feature and appearance-focused preoccupation and rituals; social anxiety is organized around fear of negative evaluation in social or performance contexts more broadly. A person may have both, and neither diagnosis follows merely from discomfort being photographed.
BDD and obsessive-compulsive disorder
BDD and OCD belong to the same diagnostic grouping and can involve checking and repetitive mental acts. The organizing preoccupation guides the differential: appearance defects in BDD; contamination, harm, responsibility, taboo thoughts, symmetry, or other obsessional themes in OCD. The two can coexist. Their clinical relationship and separate treatment targets are covered in our OCD vs BDD differential.
Muscle dysmorphia
Muscle dysmorphia is a BDD presentation in which a person is preoccupied with the belief that their body build is too small or insufficiently muscular. It can involve repeated checking, excessive training, restrictive routines, distress, and impairment. Pursuit of muscular fitness, exercise, or dissatisfaction about strength alone does not establish muscle dysmorphia. Clinical assessment also considers eating pathology and possible substance-related risk. Rück et al., 2024.
Visible difference and medically grounded concerns
A person with scarring, a skin condition, hair loss, a disability, or treatment-related appearance changes may experience real stigma, discrimination, and adjustment difficulties. Their distress requires serious attention whether or not BDD is present. A clinician avoids treating every appearance concern as inaccurate; medical problems are assessed on their merits, and any possible BDD pattern is evaluated by its full diagnostic features. These experiences can warrant evidence-based psychological care even without BDD.
When and how help differs
Support for body dissatisfaction
For distress that does not meet BDD criteria, assessment can identify appearance pressures, negative body beliefs, bullying, social comparison, depression, and eating-related concerns. Interventions may draw on cognitive behavioral approaches to unhelpful appraisals, psychological flexibility, body appreciation, self-compassion, or values-based participation. The effects of body-image interventions differ across populations and methods, and support should target the individual's actual needs. An appearance-neutral or functionality-oriented practice may be helpful for some people but should not be presented as a universally established treatment.
Because dissatisfaction may signal or coexist with an eating disorder, severe restriction, purging, dangerous exercise practices, or medical instability warrants appropriate clinical evaluation. Generic appearance-confidence advice is inadequate for those presentations.
Evidence-based care for BDD
BDD warrants disorder-specific assessment and treatment. NICE recommends BDD-focused cognitive behavioral therapy with exposure and response prevention for adults with mild impairment; more intensive CBT or a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor for moderate impairment; and combined approaches for severe impairment, tailored by qualified clinicians. Its recommendations require attention to age, severity, treatment preference, comorbidity, and safety. NICE, CG31.
A 2026 systematic review and meta-analysis by Byrne, Pikoos, and Rossell examined 40 studies, including 27 treatment studies. Across psychotherapy studies, pooled response rates were approximately 72%, with a pooled estimate of 69% among randomized trials. These are proportions meeting study-defined response criteria, not claims of cure; between-study heterogeneity, differences in treatment setting, retention, and limited long-term follow-up constrain interpretation. Internet-delivered treatment is a structured clinical modality and must not be conflated with ordinary chatbots or unvalidated self-help content. Byrne et al., 2026.
Specialized CBT addresses appearance beliefs, attention, mirror use, avoidance, comparison, and responses that perpetuate distress. Medication decisions belong to qualified prescribers, who consider risk, adverse effects, coexisting conditions, and monitoring. BDD care also involves maintaining engagement, discussing shame sensitively, and developing an individualized safety plan when needed. Castle et al., 2021.
Why cosmetic procedures require careful consideration
Seeking cosmetic care does not imply BDD. People pursue procedures for diverse reasons. When suspected BDD drives repeated attempts to “correct” a perceived defect, an appearance-altering intervention may leave the central preoccupation unchanged. NICE recommends assessment by an appropriately experienced mental health professional when people with suspected or diagnosed BDD seek cosmetic surgery or dermatological treatment. Such evaluation protects informed decision-making and directs psychiatric symptoms toward appropriate treatment. NICE, CG31.
Risk, safety, and when urgent help is needed
BDD is associated with elevated risk of depressive symptoms, self-harm, and suicidal behavior. Risk estimates depend on sample and methods, so population figures must not be converted into predictions about a particular person. Clinicians should ask directly about suicidal ideation, intent, planning, previous behavior, access to means, protective factors, and current safety when indicated, and respond with an appropriate level of care. Rück et al., 2024; NICE, CG31.
Immediate emergency assessment is appropriate when a person is in imminent danger of self-harm, has acted on suicidal intent, or cannot maintain immediate safety. Severe impairment, worsening isolation, inability to attend school or work, and increasingly consuming rituals also warrant timely professional assessment. These considerations apply regardless of how a person labels their appearance concerns.
What current evidence establishes—and what remains uncertain
Established evidence supports the distinction between a general evaluative construct and the clinical BDD syndrome, including specific diagnostic criteria and the need to evaluate repetitive behaviors, distress, and impairment. Evidence-based treatment frameworks for BDD are supported by clinical guidelines and randomized trials, although implementation and access vary. NICE, CG31; Byrne et al., 2026.
Longitudinal associations between appearance comparison and dissatisfaction are supported, but causal conclusions require attention to confounding factors and directionality. Neurocognitive differences reported in BDD are preliminary explanatory evidence rather than diagnostic tests. Epidemiological results depend on recruitment, instruments, age, and cultural setting. Digital beauty filters, synthetic appearance ideals, and platform algorithms are changing the social context; claims of uniform or disorder-specific causal effects from these exposures remain insufficiently established. Ooi et al., 2025; Rück et al., 2024.
A comparison article can clarify when specialized assessment is appropriate, but even detailed diagnostic criteria cannot determine the explanation for an individual's symptoms without evaluating their life circumstances and complete clinical presentation.
Frequently asked questions
Is being insecure about your body the same as body dysmorphia?
No. Insecurity and dissatisfaction refer to negative self-evaluations. BDD refers to a defined psychiatric syndrome involving perceived defects, repetitive appearance-related behaviors or mental acts, and clinically significant distress or impairment. People experiencing insecurity may still need meaningful support.
Can someone have severe body dissatisfaction without BDD?
Yes. The intensity of distress matters, but diagnosis also depends on the nature of the preoccupation, repetitive responses, the effect on functioning, and diagnostic exclusions. Severe dissatisfaction may also warrant assessment for eating disorders, depression, anxiety, or trauma-related concerns.
Does checking the mirror mean I have BDD?
Mirror checking is one possible BDD-related behavior. Its meaning depends on context, the perceived problem, repetition, loss of flexibility, distress, and the full symptom pattern. Neither frequent checking nor mirror avoidance alone establishes BDD.
Can BDD concern only one body part?
Yes. A person can be preoccupied with a single feature or several features. The number of features is not the determining factor; the complete clinical syndrome is.
Does BDD always involve seeing a body part inaccurately?
No. Negative evaluation, selective attention, perceptual experience, and conviction are distinct processes. Researchers are investigating how these interact in BDD, and no individual neuroimaging or perception test can establish BDD on its own.
Can body dissatisfaction develop into BDD?
Appearance concerns may intensify and become more consuming, but a predictable progression from ordinary dissatisfaction to BDD has not been established. Clinicians assess emerging preoccupation, rituals, distress, and impairment instead of assuming that one experience inevitably becomes another.
What professional should assess possible BDD?
A licensed mental health professional experienced in obsessive-compulsive and related disorders, or another qualified clinician trained to assess BDD and relevant differentials, can conduct a clinical evaluation. A primary care professional can also help arrange appropriate assessment and address coexisting health concerns.
Related Articles
- Cluster Body Image and Appearance Psychology — the broader research context for body image, appearance pressures, and clinical differentials. - OCD vs Body Dysmorphic Disorder: What Is the Difference? — distinguishes two related but separately diagnosed conditions. - OCD and Body Dysmorphic Disorder: What Is the Connection? — explains shared and separate clinical mechanisms and comorbidity. - Social Media and Body Image: Appearance Comparison, Ideals, and Mental Health — research on appearance comparison in digital settings.
Body Dysmorphic Disorder: Symptoms, Diagnosis, and Treatment — explains clinical BDD symptoms, diagnosis and treatment.
Body Dissatisfaction: Causes, Signs, and Psychological Effects — explains body dissatisfaction, clinical boundaries and psychological consequences.
Body Dysmorphic Disorder Screening: Tools and Clinical Assessment — reviews screening measures and the limits of BDD assessment.
References
- Byrne, E. H., Pikoos, T. D., and Rossell, S. L. (2026). A meta-analysis and systematic review examining efficacy, acceptability and patient retention in psychotherapy studies for the treatment of body dysmorphic disorder. Body Image, 56, 102025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2025.102025. - Castle, D., Beilharz, F., Phillips, K. A., et al. (2021). Body dysmorphic disorder: A treatment synthesis and consensus on behalf of the International College of Obsessive-Compulsive Spectrum Disorders and the Obsessive Compulsive and Related Disorders Network of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 36(2), 61–75. https://doi.org/10.1097/YIC.0000000000000342. - International OCD Foundation. Clinical assessment of BDD. https://bdd.iocdf.org/professionals/clinical-assessment-of-bdd/. - Krebs, G., Rautio, D., Fernández de la Cruz, L., et al. (2024). Practitioner review: Assessment and treatment of body dysmorphic disorder in young people. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 65(8), 1119–1131. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13984. - National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. (2005; current online recommendations). Obsessive-compulsive disorder and body dysmorphic disorder: Treatment (CG31). https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg31/chapter/Recommendations. - Ooi, W. L., Nasser, H., Simmons, J., and Krug, I. (2025). A systematic review and meta-analysis on the temporal relationship between appearance comparisons and body dissatisfaction. Body Image, 53, 101885. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2025.101885. - Phillips, K. A., Hollander, E., Rasmussen, S. A., et al. (1997). A severity rating scale for body dysmorphic disorder: Development, reliability, and validity of a modified version of the Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 33(1), 17–22. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9133747/. - Rück, C., Mataix-Cols, D., Feusner, J. D., et al. (2024). Body dysmorphic disorder. Nature Reviews Disease Primers, 10, 92. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41572-024-00577-z.